Introduction
Marjane Satrapi’s graphic novel Persepolis offers a profound narrative of personal and collective traumatic memories experienced during the Iranian Revolution and the Iran–Iraq War. Using the graphic novel medium, Satrapi effectively visualizes the fragmented nature of traumatic memories with stark, minimalist imagery and a nonlinear narrative structure. As both writer and artist, Satrapi employs the graphic novel format to vividly capture the complexities of her childhood and adolescence against the backdrop of the Iranian Revolution and its aftermath.
Traumatic memory, a focal point in psychological studies and literary critique, encapsulates the fragmented, recurring, often haunting recollections of distressing events. Satrapi’s Persepolis is replete with such memories, which are intricately depicted through her austere, minimalist drawings. The narrative threads of the horrors of war, Anoush’s execution, Ahmadi’s mutilated body, the torture of political prisoners, and Marji’s personal trauma in Austria and during the bombing of her neighborhood are significant sites of remembrance etched into the reader’s mind through visual storytelling.
Moreover, Persepolis highlights the tension between individuality and uniformity under an oppressive regime. Satrapi's use of contrasting imagery, such as her individual image versus the indistinguishable veiled figures of her peers, underscores the struggle to maintain personal identity in a repressive society. This thematic concern recurs throughout the narrative, emphasizing the broader socio-political critique embedded within the personal memoir. Persepolis emerges as a powerful testament to the precarity of survival and the resilience of the human spirit. Through its nuanced exploration of traumatic memory, witnessing, and visual storytelling, Satrapi reflects on the enduring impact of personal and collective trauma.
In this paper, I explore how Satrapi utilizes the graphic novel’s visual language to represent and process traumatic memories. By focusing on specific scenes of trauma in the text, I analyze the techniques Satrapi employs to evoke the psychological impact of these memories. Drawing upon the insights of trauma theorists such as Cathy Caruth and Hillary L. Chute on Satrapi’s artistry, I consider how Persepolis narrates and visually encodes the enduring scars of trauma. Additionally, I examine how Satrapi’s depiction of the conflict between individuality and uniformity underlines the broader societal implications of her narratives. Through this lens, one can better appreciate the intricacy of Satrapi’s art, which brings the invisible weight of traumatic memory into visible form and offers a profound commentary on the interplay among memory, trauma, and identity.
The Nature of Traumatic Memory in Historical Narratives
Marjane Satrapi’s Persepolis is a seminal autobiographical graphic novel that explores profound social and psychological themes through Satrapi’s personal experiences, making it a compelling subject for academic consideration. Understanding how trauma shapes and disrupts historical narratives requires a nuanced examination of its psychological and temporal dimensions.
Traumatic events are often characterized by delayed responses and intrusive, repetitive memories that challenge the conventional linear narratives of history. These disruptions necessitate a reevaluation of how historical events are processed and remembered in the contexts of personal and collective experiences. This approach to trauma and history aligns with the theoretical framework proposed by Cathy Caruth, a prominent scholar in trauma studies. In Unclaimed Experience: Trauma and the Possibility of History, she argues that trauma involves the “often delayed, and uncontrolled repetitive occurrence of hallucinations and other intrusive phenomena,” [1] challenging conventional understandings of history and memory. This scholar’s insights are particularly useful for analyzing how Persepolis represents the traumatic experiences of its protagonist and the broader implications of historical consciousness.
Caruth’s concept of trauma as involving delayed but intrusive symptoms is vividly illustrated in Persepolis through recurring nightmare sequences and depictions of sudden violence, reflecting the protagonist Marjane’s struggle to process her traumatic past. For instance, the scene where Marjane relives the bombing of her neighborhood (Figure 1) captures this vividly—her fear and confusion are starkly rendered in black-and-white illustrations, with disorienting contrasts and fragmented images. These illustrations convey the intrusive nature of traumatic memory, echoing Caruth’s assertion that trauma disrupts linear historical understanding and necessitates a rethinking of reference and memory.[2]
In Persepolis, Satrapi utilizes the graphic novel medium to explore how traumatic memory is disjointed but recurring, a concept deeply rooted in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, as discussed by Caruth. She noted that Freud posited that trauma is not simply anchored in the original event but is significantly characterized by its delayed impact and the way it intrudes upon the survivor’s consciousness over time. As Caruth explained, “The historical power of the trauma is not just that the experience is repeated after its forgetting, but that it is only in and through its inherent forgetting that it is first experienced at all.”[3] This notion underscores the complexity of traumatic memory, as it suggests that the initial trauma is incompletely processed and only fully manifests through subsequent recollections. Satrapi's narrative and visual style in Persepolis reflects this process, showing how Marjane's memories resurface in fragmented and non-linear ways, emphasizing the enduring and pervasive impact of trauma.
By intertwining personal and collective histories, Persepolis portrays the disorienting effects of trauma and invites readers to engage with history to acknowledge its inherent ruptures and silences. For instance, Satrapi vividly illustrates the trauma of the Iranian Revolution through Marjane's eyes as she witnesses the execution of her beloved uncle Anoosh. (Figure 2) This traumatic event, depicted with stark imagery and fragmented narration, exemplifies how personal grief intersects with the broader historical turmoil, creating a disjointed and haunting memory. This engagement reflects the broader argument that rethinking history through trauma resituates
history within one’s understanding, allowing history to arise when immediate comprehension may be impossible.[4] Thus, Persepolis is a visual testament to the complexities of traumatic memory and the necessity of confronting the latent, often inaccessible nature of traumatic events.
Visual Narrative Techniques of Trauma: Exploring Identity and Memory
Satrapi’s use of visual metaphors and fragmented narrative structure underscores the epistemological challenges that trauma poses. For example, the recurring image of the swan (Figure 3), a gift from Marjane's uncle Anoosh, serves as a poignant visual metaphor for hope and loss, encapsulating the emotional weight of traumatic memories. The disjointed recall of events in Persepolis aligns with Caruth’s argument that trauma’s historical power lies in its repetition and inherent forgetting, experienced fully only through its inaccessibility.[5] This is evident when Marjane’s memories of the Revolution and the war are presented in a non-linear fashion, reflecting the confusion and chaos of her experiences.
The fragmented storytelling mirrors the piecemeal nature of traumatic memory, challenging traditional historical narratives and highlighting the unspeakable aspects of trauma. For instance, Marjane’s recollections of her childhood are interspersed with haunting images of bombings and executions, which disrupt the chronological flow and convey the enduring impact of these events on her psyche. Furthermore, the interplay between text and image in Persepolis emphasizes these challenges by reflecting the complex, disorienting nature of the traumatic experiences that Caruth described. This visual and narrative interplay not only illustrates the fragmentation of memory but also empowers women's storytelling by giving voice to the often-silenced experiences of trauma.
The use of visual storytelling allows Satrapi to convey the fragmentation and intensity of traumatic experiences in ways that traditional textual narratives might not achieve. For instance, Satrapi depicts the bombing of Marjane's neighborhood during the Iran-Iraq War. The chaotic scenes and disarray of the images vividly capture the terror and confusion experienced during such traumatic events. (Figure 1) As Nabizadeh argued, the “visual intimacy” characteristic of Satrapi’s storytelling “is particularly powerful in women’s storytelling because it tends to the ambiguities between appearance and reality in playful, provocative, and painful ways.”[6] This approach expands the visual archive of trauma by documenting events and emotions that might otherwise remain unarticulated.
Satrapi employs a stark, monochromatic style in Persepolis to effectively convey the depth and complexity of traumatic memories. The minimalist black-and-white illustrations do not merely reflect an aesthetic choice but serve a deeper purpose in representing the profound impact of trauma. As Hillary Chute explains, the “visual emptiness of the simple, ungraded blackness in the frames shows not the scarcity of memory, but rather its thickness, its depth; the ‘vacancy’ represents the practice of memory, for the author and possibly for the reader.”[7] This suggests that the visual elements in Persepolis serve as a tool for both the author and the reader to navigate the intricate layers of traumatic memory. Satrapi achieves this by using stark, minimalist imagery to create a sense of emptiness and silence, mirroring the fragmented and haunting nature of traumatic experiences. This visual strategy underscores the heavy burden of traumatic experiences while inviting readers to engage actively with the narrative, thus participating in the process of remembering and bearing witness. For example, the use of empty spaces and sparse details in the illustrations allows readers to fill in the gaps with their own interpretations and emotions, fostering a deeper connection to the narrative and its themes of trauma and resilience.
Moreover, the concept of reader participation in Persepolis is closely intertwined with Satrapi's use of iconic abstraction, as explained by Scott McCloud in Understanding Comics. McCloud observed that simple, cartoon-like images enable greater reader identification and emotional projection than realistic depictions. In contrast, McCloud found that realistic depictions can detract from meaning in comics. Instead, the abstraction inherent in cartoonish representations invites readers to see themselves in the characters, making the trauma more relatable and visceral.[8] This concept is evident from the first panel of Persepolis, (Figure 4) in which Satrapi’s simple cartoon image invites readers to engage with her story on a personal level.
The visual style of Persepolis also plays a crucial role in conveying the emotional truth of Satrapi’s experiences. Satrapi’s use of austere imagery avoids the banality often associated with hyperreal depictions of violence, instead opting for a simplicity that enhances the narrative’s emotional impact. Nabizadeh highlights this approach, noting that the “stark black-and-white visual style to represent the horrors of violence and trauma” provides an emotional truth through simplicity and abstraction.[9] Emotional truth here refers to the authenticity and sincerity of emotions portrayed or evoked in the artwork, encompassing the ability of Persepolis to resonate with the audience on an emotional level, capturing the essence of human experience and eliciting genuine emotional responses. This minimalist aesthetic draws readers to focus on the essential elements of each scene, allowing the characters’ raw emotions to resonate more deeply. The visual simplicity also allows readers to project their emotions onto the characters, fostering a deeper understanding of the depicted trauma.
The minimalist aesthetic of Persepolis not only serves to convey the emotional truth of Satrapi’s experiences but also underscores the tension between individuality and uniformity under an oppressive regime. Satrapi’s minimalistic drawings and stark use of chiaroscuro effectively convey the ambivalence and disruption characteristic of traumatic experiences. As Chaney noted, “The stark chiaroscuro of Satrapi’s minimalistic drawings are always on hand to reinforce those qualities of ambivalence and disruption for which so many critics praise comics—their ‘utter non-objectivity’.”[10] This use of stark contrasts and simplicity in Satrapi’s artwork underscores the fragmented and often disorienting nature of trauma, reflecting how traumatic memories can disrupt one's sense of self and reality. By employing these visual strategies, Satrapi invites readers to not only witness but also to feel the weight of the traumatic experiences, deepening their engagement with the narrative and the historical realities it portrays.
The contrast between Satrapi’s individual image and the indistinguishable veiled figures of her peers highlights the tension between individuality and uniformity under an oppressive regime. As Chaney asserted, “The first two panels of Persepolis dramatize a conflict between individuality and universality that recurs throughout the narrative.”[11] In the first panel, she introduces herself with a simple cartoon image. The second panel contrasts her individual image with that of her peers, who appear indistinguishable due to their veils. This visual technique highlights individuality amid uniformity, encouraging the reader to see personal identity despite outward similarities.[12] Chaney's observation underscores how this visual contrast sets the stage for the recurring theme throughout Persepolis, where Satrapi continually navigates and resists the pressures of conforming to a homogenized identity imposed by the regime. By doing so, Satrapi not only emphasizes the oppressive nature of the regime but also celebrates the resilience and uniqueness of individual identity amidst widespread repression. This conflict between individuality and enforced uniformity is a central aspect of the traumatic experiences depicted in the narrative, illustrating how personal and collective identities are impacted by sociopolitical forces.
Moreover, the visualization of traumatic memory in Persepolis is skillfully articulated through the use of mirror scenes and the trope of mise en abyme (images containing miniature reflections of themselves). This technique underscores the autobiographical subject’s fractured identity and foregrounds the complex interplay between personal and collective trauma. In his essay, Terrors of the Mirror and the ‘Mise En Abyme’ of Graphic Novel Autobiography, Michael A. Chaney probed the formal mechanics of autobiographical graphic novels to reveal how mirror scenes facilitate deeper engagement with traumatic memories, creating what he terms “failed encounters with the real.”[13] Chaney means that these mirror scenes reflect the autobiographical subject's struggle to fully comprehend and integrate their traumatic experiences, emphasizing the persistent and unresolved nature of trauma.
Chaney’s exploration of the mirror trope aligns with Lacanian psychoanalysis, particularly the concept of the mirror stage, in which the child’s recognition of his or her reflection is a pivotal moment of identity formation. This psychoanalytic framework helps us understand how characters in Persepolis confront their reflections as a way of grappling with their fractured identities. Chaney contended that these scenes, which often depict characters encountering their reflections, highlight the disjunction between their lived experiences and their perceived idealized versions of themselves. In Persepolis, Satrapi’s use of mirror imagery represents her struggle with identity against the backdrop of the Iranian Revolution. The young Marji’s frequent encounters with mirrors symbolize her fractured sense of self as she navigates the conflicting demands of personal freedom and societal expectations of spatial divisions and identity.[14] This disjunction between her inner and outer selves is particularly evident in scenes where Marji must reconcile her private sense of self with the public roles imposed on her by a repressive regime.
The use of spatial divisions, particularly the gutter—the space between panels—in Persepolis symbolizes the separation between Marji’s individuality and the collective identity imposed on her. This is achieved through the deliberate placement and arrangement of panels, with the gutter serving as a visual boundary between Marji's personal experiences and the societal context in which she exists. Chaney described the gutter as “a complex mirror in the vein of the mise en abyme” that reflects Satrapi’s individual nostalgia and the collective identity she navigates.[15] Through the manipulation of the gutter, Satrapi creates a visual metaphor for the internal conflict Marji faces, highlighting the tension between her personal identity and the external pressures of societal norms and expectations.
Chaney’s analysis aligns with Philippe Lejeune’s concept of the autobiographical pact, which refers to the implicit agreement between the author and the reader regarding the authenticity of the narrative as a representation of the author's life. This pact grounds the narrative’s authenticity, establishing trust between the author and the reader. Satrapi’s meticulous attention to visual representation and retrospective narration creates a layered narrative, inviting readers to engage with the subjective interpretation of her experiences. The mirrored reflections in Persepolis thus become a site of both self-recognition and self-alienation, embodying the ongoing negotiation of identity in the face of trauma.[16]
Marjane Satrapi’s Persepolis employs visual techniques to explore the complexities of traumatic memory and identity. The use of iconic abstraction, minimalistic drawings, and mirror imagery provides commentary on the nature of memory and identity amid historical upheaval. By juxtaposing individual and collective experiences through visual storytelling, Satrapi challenges the conventional hierarchies of visual media, demonstrating the capacity of graphic novels to capture the emotional truth of human experiences. Satrapi achieves this by utilizing graphic novels, typically considered less prestigious compared to other forms of visual art, to effectively convey complex narratives and capture emotional truths. These techniques, such as iconic abstraction and minimalistic drawings, allow her to present individual and collective experiences in a way that challenges traditional notions of visual storytelling. In the exploration of traumatic memory and identity through visual techniques, it becomes imperative to delve deeper into the visual representation of trauma in Persepolis, particularly examining how ruins serve as symbols of devastation.
The Visual Representation of Trauma: Ruins as Symbols of Devastation in Persepolis
In Persepolis, Satrapi employs a distinctive visual strategy to represent traumatic memory: images of ruins that embody the profound devastation wrought by war. Rebecca Scherr discussed how the depiction of ruins in graphic narratives, such as Persepolis, documents destruction and evokes a visceral response from readers. By integrating these visual elements, and specifying the images of ruins, Satrapi documents the devastation of war and expands the boundaries of humanitarian witnessing. Scherr proposed that the depiction of ruins in Persepolis highlights the extent of human suffering, thus eliciting a deeper emotional response from readers and prompting ethical reflection on the impact of conflict.[17] This analysis underscores the power of visual storytelling in conveying the human toll of war and invites readers to engage critically with the ethical implications of violence and conflict.
Scherr also contended that the inclusion of ruins as legitimate subjects of empathy and justice expands the humanitarian discourse beyond human casualties to encompass the built environment and its destruction. This notion is vividly illustrated in Persepolis, particularly in the chapter “The Shabbat,” in which Satrapi departs from her characteristic black-and-white style to depict the bombed ruins of her neighbor’s home with textured shading. This visual break underscores the event’s traumatic impact, marking it as a moment of frame-breaking significance.[18]
One of the most poignant moments in Persepolis is the depiction of the bombing of Marji’s neighborhood, (Figure 1) which serves as a powerful illustration of the visual representation of trauma. In the chapter titled “The Shabbat,” Marji returns home to find her street bombed and her friend’s house reduced to rubble. Satrapi captures the horror of this moment with a simplicity that is both stark and devastating. In this scene, Satrapi’s portrayal of the bombed Baba Levys’ home is outstanding due to its shading, which emphasizes the horror of the scene.[19] This is exemplified by Marji’s observation: “The bracelet was still attached to... I don’t know what…”[20]
Using visual techniques to convey the shock and disorientation that Marji feels, underscores trauma’s inability to be fully expressed in words.[21] The episode ends with Marji’s statement, “No scream in the world could have relieved my suffering and my anger,”[22] adorning a solid black panel. The black panel that follows this revelation is a visual blackout symbolizing the overwhelming nature of Marji’s grief and the rupture in her perception of reality.
Satrapi highlights this moment by having the usual stark black-and-white illustrations give way to a more textured, nuanced portrayal of rubble and debris. This change in visual technique emphasizes the physical destruction and mirrors Marji’s internal turmoil and shock as she confronts the tangible remnants of violence and loss.[23]
Satrapi’s artistic choices in these panels draw the reader into her traumatic experience, making the ruins a central component of her narrative of suffering. Scherr observed that the ruins in Persepolis are not merely background elements but active participants in witnessing trauma. In capturing the irreversible damage inflicted by war, they become symbols of personal and collective memory. By focusing on the ruins, Satrapi aligns her work with the tradition of artists such as Goya, whose etchings also integrate the devastation of the built environment into the representation of human suffering. This integration challenges readers to expand their empathy to include the destruction of homes and communities, thus broadening the scope of humanitarian regard.[24]
Additionally, Scherr points out how Satrapi employs specific sequencing and visual storytelling methods to immerse readers in Marji's traumatic events. By depicting Marji covering her mouth and eyes sequentially, followed by a blackout panel, Satrapi effectively conveys Marji's shock and disorientation, making her trauma vivid to the reader. This sequence not only captures Marji's trauma but also transforms it into a tangible experience for the audience.[25]
Scherr's observation highlights the profound impact of Satrapi's artistic choices on the reader's experience of trauma. By immersing readers in the tactile quality of the shaded ruins, Satrapi bridges the gap between personal trauma and collective empathy. This technique not only makes the destruction depicted in the narrative feel immediate and real but also allows readers to connect with the emotional depth of Satrapi's storytelling. As Scherr eloquently stated, “The image ‘touches’ us, so to speak,”[26] effectively drawing readers into traumatic memory as witnesses to the suffering depicted on the page.[27] Satrapi's ability to communicate the inexpressible aspects of trauma through her art invites readers to bear witness to the suffering portrayed on the page, fostering a sense of shared humanity and collective memory.
Witnessing Trauma and Historical Memory: Exploring Survival and Historical Consciousness
The concept of witnessing is a critical theme in Persepolis, as Satrapi positions herself as both a participant and an observer of historical events. In an interview, Satrapi explained, “I was born in a country in a certain time, and I was witness to many things. I was a witness to a revolution. I was a witness to war. I was witness to a huge emigration. I was a witness when I came back.”[28] This dual role enhances the authenticity of her narrative, providing readers with an intimate perspective on sociopolitical upheavals in Iran. Nabizadeh’s analysis further supports this duality by discussing how Persepolis functions as a testimonial narrative, emphasizing the importance of personal and collective witnessing in understanding trauma.[29]
The interplay between text and image in Persepolis exemplifies the paradox of witnessing and responsibility discussed by Harr. Satrapi’s narrative addresses the guilt and responsibility felt by witnesses of atrocities, resonating with Harr’s insight that they felt that they “were as responsible for everything [they] saw as [they] were for everything [they] did.”[30] The delayed realization of witnessed events, depicted through Marjane’s reflections, underscores the haunting persistence of traumatic memory and its impact on identity and historical consciousness.
Satrapi’s narrative is marked by its nonlinear structure, reflecting the fragmented nature of traumatic memory. This narrative is particularly evident in her depiction of personal survival and coping mechanisms. As Nabizadeh asserted, “Satrapi’s ‘miraculous’ survival after she attempts suicide, the ways in which trauma generates nonlinear narratives, and the interrelationship between humor and mourning as a creative strategy of survival”[31] are central themes in Persepolis. By juxtaposing moments of intense sorrow with instances of dark humor, Satrapi allows readers to engage with her traumatic experiences in an accessible, deeply moving way. This technique illustrates the resilience of the human spirit and underscores the complexity of processing trauma.[32] In the chapter with the title; The Key, Marjane describes how young boys from poor families were given plastic keys painted gold and told they would go to heaven if they died in battle. (Figure 5) The dark humor comes through when Marjane and her friends mock this propaganda, demonstrating their understanding of its absurdity and the tragic reality behind it. This moment juxtaposes the horror of using children as tools of war with the absurdity of the propaganda they are fed, creating a poignant. In Chapter; The Cigarette, Marjane's rebellion against her mother by smoking a cigarette is both a serious act of defiance and a moment of dark humor. She narrates this act as a rite of passage into adulthood, equating her single puff with having aged significantly. This humorous take on a serious personal rebellion reflects her coping with the oppressive environment she grew up in. In the chapter The Pill, Marjane uses humor to show that she is always willing to use humor to ease hardships and discomfort for herself and the reader. (figure 6).
The act of bearing witness to trauma is crucial to Persepolis, as Satrapi illustrates the importance of remembering and narrating personal and collective histories. Chute asserted that “Persepolis demonstrates the imbrication of the personal and the historical” and emphasized that “the ethical, verbal, and visual practice of ‘not forgetting’ is not merely about exposing and challenging the virulent machinations of ‘official histories,’ but is more specifically about examining and bearing witness to the intertwining of the everyday and the historical.”[33] This dual focus on individual and collective memory highlights the ethical imperative to remember and recount traumatic events, preserving historical truth and fostering understanding.
In addition to this imperative to bear witness, Satrapi’s decision to narrate Persepolis from the perspective of her younger self, Marji, adds a layer of innocence and immediacy to the portrayal of political upheaval and violence. This narrative choice allows for a candid, poignant depiction of how a child processes trauma. Chute clarified that “Satrapi’s embrace of the perspective of youth for her narrative is a way for the author to return to and present the historical events of her childhood with a matter-of-factness that is neither ‘innocent’ nor ‘cynical,’ but in constant negotiation of these.”[34] By adopting this perspective, Satrapi provides a nuanced exploration of memory, illustrating the evolving understanding of traumatic events from childhood to adulthood.
Satrapi’s portrayal of traumatic memory in Persepolis serves as a personal memoir and historical document of witnessing the collective trauma of the Iranian people. Persepolis intertwines the personal and historical, highlighting how individual experiences of trauma are deeply interconnected with broader sociopolitical contexts. This interweave is evident in the chapter “The Bicycle,” in which Marji’s personal memory of a massacre is depicted alongside its historical significance. Chute noted that Marji’s “child’s image of fiery death . . . haunts the text because of its incommensurability—and yet its expressionistic consonance—with what we are provoked to imagine is the visual reality of this brutal murder.”[35] This interplay between personal and collective memory emphasizes the pervasive impact of societal violence on individual identity, underscoring the enduring scars left by historical trauma.
As Satrapi's narrative delves into the complexities of bearing witness to trauma, it seamlessly transitions into a broader exploration of the necessity of remembering, where the imperative to preserve personal and collective histories becomes paramount.
The Necessity of Remembering
Persepolis revolves around the imperative of not forgetting, a theme explicitly emphasized by Chute in Graphic Women. Chute found that “Satrapi’s text is framed diegetically, and externally in her introduction, by injunctions to ‘never forget’; it is the defining project of the text.” This idea is poignantly illustrated through Marji’s relationship with her uncle Anoosh, who, before his execution, tells her, “Our family memory must not be lost. Even if it’s not easy for you, even if you don’t understand it all.” Marji’s promise, “Don't worry, I’ll never forget,” highlights her commitment to memory.[36] In the introduction to Persepolis, Satrapi echoes this commitment, asserting, “I ... don’t want those Iranians who lost their lives in prisons defending freedom, who died in the war against Iraq, who suffered under various repressive regimes, or who were forced to leave their families and flee their homeland to be forgotten.”[37] In the introduction, she also emphasizes that “I also don’t want those Iranians who lost their lives in prisons defending freedom . . . or who were forced to leave their families and flee their homeland to be forgotten … One can forgive but one should never forget.”[38] This statement underscores her commitment to preserving the memory of those who suffered under oppressive regimes.
Conclusion
Marjane Satrapi's Persepolis intertwines personal and collective traumatic memories through the graphic novel format. Utilizing stark, minimalist imagery and a nonlinear narrative, Satrapi captures the fragmented nature of traumatic memories from the Iranian Revolution and the Iran–Iraq War. In my analysis, I draw on trauma theorists, such as Caruth and Chute, to explore the deep impact of trauma on memory and identity within the work. Visual storytelling techniques, such as iconic abstraction, enhance emotional engagement and highlight the complex interplay between individual and collective experiences.
Satrapi’s fragmented narrative structure and use of visual metaphors underscore the epistemological challenges posed by trauma, echoing Caruth’s views on the disruption of linear historical understanding. The iconic abstraction in her artwork allows readers to project their experiences onto the characters, fostering deeper emotional connections. The minimalist black-and-white imagery emphasizes the depth of traumatic experiences and facilitates a stronger reader connection to the narrative.
The exploration of mirrors and reflections, particularly through the trope of mise en abyme, highlights the fractured identity and complex interplay between personal and collective trauma. The use of spatial divisions, such as the gutter, enhances the narrative’s authenticity and depth. Satrapi’s focus on ruins and the physical remnants of war expands her humanitarian discourse to include the built environment, prompting ethical reflection on the impact of conflict. Persepolis also underscores the importance of bearing witness to trauma. The narrative’s emphasis on bearing witness preserves historical truth and fosters understanding.
Persepolis is a testament to survival and human resilience. By intertwining individual and collective experiences through visual storytelling, Satrapi challenges the conventional hierarchies of visual media, demonstrating the unique capacity of graphic novels to capture emotional truths. Her work documents the devastation of war and oppression and offers a nuanced exploration of memory and identity, making Persepolis a significant contributor to literary and trauma studies. Through her graphic novel, Satrapi provides a profound commentary on the enduring impact of trauma and the necessity of remembering these painful histories.
Figure 1: From Satrapi, Marjane. The Complete Persepolis. Pantheon, 2007. Chapter: The Shabbat. Page 142.
| Figure 2. Satrapi, Marjane. The Complete Persepolis. Pantheon, 2007. Chapter: The Sheep. Page 70.
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Figure 3: Satrapi, Marjane. The Complete Persepolis. Pantheon, 2007. Chapter: The Sheep. Page 69.
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Figure 4: Satrapi, Marjane. The Complete Persepolis. Pantheon, 2007. Chapter: The Veil. Page 3 |
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Figure 5: Satrapi, Marjane. The Complete Persepolis. Pantheon, 2007. Chapter: The Key. Page 94. | Figure 6: Satrapi, Marjane. The Complete Persepolis. Pantheon, 2007. Chapter: The Pill. Page 184.
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Works Cited
Caruth, Cathy. “Unclaimed Experience: Trauma and the Possibility of History.” Yale French Studies, vol. 79, no. 79, 1991, pp. 181–192.
Chaney, Michael A. “Terrors of the Mirror and the ‘Mise En Abyme’ of Graphic Novel Autobiography.” College Literature, vol. 38, no. 3, 2011, pp. 21–44.
Chute, Hillary L. Graphic Women: Life Narrative and Contemporary Comics. Columbia University Press, 2010.
Chute, Hillary L. “The Texture of Retracing in Marjane Satrapi’s 'Persepolis’.” Women’s Studies Quarterly, vol. 36, no. 1/2, 2008, pp. 92–110.
Herr, Michael. Dispatches. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1991.
McCloud, Scott, et al. Understanding Comics. Harper Perennial, 1994.
Nabizadeh, Golnar. “Vision and Precarity in Marjane Satrapi’s ‘Persepolis’.” Women's Studies Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 1/2, 2016, pp. 157–167.
Satrapi, Marjane. The Complete Persepolis. Pantheon, 2007.
Scherr, Rebecca. “Regarding the Ruins: Ruins and Humanitarian Witnessing in Satrapi and Sacco.” Journal of Graphic Novels & Comics, vol. 12, no. 3, 2021, pp. 193–206.
[1] Caruth, “Unclaimed Experience: Trauma and the Possibility of History” 181.
[2] Caruth, “Unclaimed Experience” 189.
[3] Caruth, “Unclaimed Experience” 187.
[4] Caruth, “Unclaimed Experience”186–187.
[5] Caruth, “Unclaimed Experience” 187.
[6] Nabizadeh, “Vision and Precarity in Marjane Satrapi's ‘Persepolis’” 155.
[7] Chute, “The Texture of Retracing in Marjane Satrapi’s ‘Persepolis’” 98.
[8] McCloud, Understanding Comics 30–36.
[9] Nabizadeh, “Vision and Precarity” 157–158.
[10] Michael A. Chaney, p. 29, quoted in Linda Hutcheon, "Postmodern Provocation: History and 'Graphic' Literature," Torre: Revista de la Universitad de Puerto Rico, vol. 2, no. 4-5, 1997, p. 306.
[11] Chaney, “Terrors of the Mirror and the 'Mise En Abyme' of Graphic Novel Autobiography” 26.
[12] Chaney, “Terrors of the Mirror” 26– 27.
[13] Chaney, “Terrors of the Mirror” 23.
[14] Chaney, “Terrors of the Mirror” 29, 38.
[15] Chaney, “Terrors of the Mirror” 29.
[16] Chaney, “Terrors of the Mirror” 38.
[17] Scherr, “Regarding the Ruins: Ruins and Humanitarian Witnessing in Satrapi and Sacco” 197.
[18] Scherr, “Regarding the Ruins” 195–196.
[19] Scherr, “Regarding the Ruins” 198.
[20] Satrapi, The Complete Persepolis 142.
[21] Nabizadeh, “Vision and Precarity” 161–162.
[22] See Satrapi, Persepolis 142.
[23] Scherr, “Regarding the Ruins” 198.
[24] Scherr, “Regarding the Ruins,” 193–195.
[25] Scherr, “Regarding the Ruins” 200.
[26] Scherr, “Regarding the Ruins” 198.
[27] Scherr, “Regarding the Ruins” 198.
[28] Sam Leith, "A Writer's Life: Marjane Satrapi," Telegraph, December 12, 2004, quoted in Golnar Nabizadeh, “Vision and Precarity”, p.158
[29] Nabizadeh “Vision and Precarity” 159.
[30] Herr, Dispatches 20.
[31] Nabizadeh, “Vision and Precarity” 157.
[32] Nabizadeh, “Vision and Precarity”164.
[33] Chute, “The Texture of Retracing” 105.
[34] Chute “The Texture of Retracing” 97.
[35] Chute, “The Texture of Retracing” 100.
[36] Chute, Graphic Women : Life Narrative and Contemporary Comics 143.
[37] Chute, Graphic Women 143.
[38] Satrapi, The Complete Persepolis. Introduction
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